Concentrations of Lead in Groundwater and Human Blood in the Population of Palosai, a Rural Area in Pakistan: Human Exposure and Risk Assessment

Lead (Pb) is a toxic environmental contaminant, which enters water bodies from natural and anthropogenic activities. The present study investigates the Pb concentration in groundwater sources and evaluates their potential health risks in Palosai area, Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Groundwater samples were collected from different groundwater sources in the area where the human blood samples were from the dependent residents. Pb concentration was analyzed using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer and compared with the permissible limits set by Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency and World Health Organization (WHO). The levels of physicochemical parameters were observed within the said safe limits, while the levels of Pb in different groundwater sources (tube wells and wells) showed a little bit variation. Health risk indicators such as chronic daily intake (CDI) and hazard quotient (HQ) were calculated for Pb. The calculated value of CDI and HQ for Pb via groundwater consumption was 0.001 mg/kg·day and 2:8E − 02 mg/kg·day, respectively; however, the overall HQ values of Pb in the groundwater were less than 1, indicating no health risk to the local depending community.